Teisė. 1998, vol. 32The annual journal of Vilnius University. Founded in 1957. The articles are published in Lithuanian and other languages. |
The editorial board:
IPOLITAS NEKROŠIUS,
ARMANAS ABRAMAVIČIUS,
ANTANAS DAPŠYS,
PRANAS KUCONIS,
MINDAUGAS MAKSIMAITIS,
ANTANAS MARCIJONAS,
VALENTINAS MIKELĖNAS,
ZENONAS PETRAUSKAS,
ALVYDAS PUMPUTIS.
Contact Address:
Vilnius University Faculty of Law
Saulėtekio al. 9, 2054 Vilnius
Tel. 76 89 60, fax 76 89 60, e-mail tf@tf.vu.lt
CRISTINA BARETTINI
Šis straipsnis remiasi nuostata, kad, priėmus 93/13 EB direktyvą "Dėl neteisėtų sąlygų vartotojų sutartyse", atskirų Europos Sąjungos valstybių įstatymai dėl šių sutarčių standartų (reikalavimų) vis dar išryškina didelius neatitikimus. Pagrindinė tokios teisinės padėties priežastis yra ta, kad ankstesni nacionaliniai šios srities įstatymai buvo gana skirtingi, todėl minėta direktyva nustatė tik pagrindinius principus, palikdama nacionalinių įstatymų leidėjams laisvę šioje srityje pasirinkti konkrečius šios Direktyvos įgyvendinimo būdus ir strategiją. Straipsnio autorė pataria eksportuojančioms įmonėms ir transnacionaliniams vartotojams priimti specialius šios srities įstatymus.
Siekiant padėti geriau suprasti kiekvienos ES šalies nacionalinio reguliavimo esmę, o įmonėms suderinti standartų (reikalavimų) formas, straipsnyje trumpai aptariami trys pagrindiniai iki šiol Europoje taikomi neteisėtų sąlygų vartotojų sutartyse kontrolės būdai, lėmę įvairių ES šalių nacionalinius įstatymus. Tai: 1) teisėjo sprendimo pagrindu atsirandantis kontrolės būdas, grindžiamas konkrečia teisės norma; 2) administracinis būdas (čia kontrolę vykdo valstybės institucijos arba specialios administracinės komisijos) ir 3) vadinamasis derinimo būdas, kai įmonių ir vartotojų atstovai kartu suderina sutarties standartus (reikalavimus). Šie būdai sąlygoja skirtingus kelius, kuriuos pasirinko valstybės narės įgyvendindamos Direktyvą nacionalinėje teisėje.
Kaip Direktyvos įgyvendinimo sunkumų, atsirandančių eksportuojančioms įmonėms, pavyzdys straipsnyje pateikiama Prancūzijos byla. Taip pat trumpai apžvelgiami kitų valstybių narių įstatymų minėtos Direktyvos įgyvendinimo savitumai.
Straipsnyje rašoma apie naują riziką ir galimybes, suteiktas transnacionaliniams vartotojams įgyvendinant 93/13 EB direktyvą valstybėse narėse, kartu atsižvelgiant į 1980 metų Romos konvenciją "Dėl teisės taikymo sutartiniams įsipareigojimams teisinės kolizijos (teisės konkurencijos) atveju."
Autorė siūlo vartotojams pasidomėti, kokių yra nacionalinių įstatymų, reguliuojančių neteisėtų sąlygų vartotojų sutartyse kontrolės klausimus, skirtybių, kad būtų galima reikalauti kuo didesnės apsaugos, o teisininkai ir teisėjai, sprendžiantys šiuos klausimus, galėtų pasidalyti savo specifinėmis šios srities žiniomis.
Straipsnio pabaigoje autorė primena Romos konvencijos 5 skirsnį, pagal kurį, tam tikrais atvejais vartotojams yra garantuojamas palankesnis įstatymo taikymas. Be to, aptariamos penkios skirtingos statuso formos, kurias gali gauti vartotojas pasirašydamas transnacionalinės sutarties standartą priklausomai nuo to, koks įstatymas yra taikomas vartotojo sutarčiai, kartu vartotojai padrąsinami reikalauti savo teisių pripažinimo.
ROMUALDAS DRAKŠAS
The article "Evolution of the Death Penalty in Lithuania" reveals the outlook upon the death penalty in Lithuania during different historical periods. The author states, that according to the outlook upon the death penalty or its execution, several different periods might be distinguished. The first one is the period time when Lithuania was not yet a centralized state, and the customary law norms were applied. The second period is the time when centralized state of Lithuania was being formed and written codes of law came into force. This period lasted till the adoption of the First Statute of the Great Duchess of Lithuania in 1529. The third period covers the years of the First Statute validity and lasts till the middle of XIX century. Tsar Russian punishment laws started the fourth period. The years of independent Lithuania between the two world wars would be the fifth period. The sixth period covers of soviet occupation. Renovation of the independence of Lithuania started the seventh period.
Looking through the evolution of the death penalty in Lithuania, the following conclusion might be drawn: every time period, except years of soviet occupation, the ways of solving the death penalty question were getting more and more progressive. Bearing in mind the facts, investigated in the article, as well as the death penalty position in the present legislation, we can state the abolishment of the death penalty in Lithuania would be logical and natural event.
ANNA DRAKŠIENĖ
The article analyses issues of regulation of criminal liability of minors. Its main concern is the establishment of the age limit at which a person is criminally liable and until which lighter penal norms should be imposed. It is also concerned with the improvement of the system of punitive and educational measures.
In essence, the article is in favour of the draft Penal Code submitted by the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Lithuania to the Government of the Republic of Lithuanian in July 1998. The Draft suggests that in the future the Penal Code should establish only exceptional criminal liability of minors, and that the peculiarities of the liability be set forth in a separate chapter of the Penal Code Peculiarities of the Criminal Liability of Minors. This new chapter of the Penal Code would provide for a special system of punitive and educational measures as well as rules of their imposition, grounds and conditions for the exemption from criminal liability and penalties, which would be in line with the instruments of international law.
The article discusses the following educational measures: (1) warning; (2) repairing material damage; (3) non-paid works; (4) placing the minor under the upbringing and guardianship of his/her patents or other persons; (5) restricting the behaviour of the minor; (6) placing the minor in a special educational-disciplinary institution.
Depending on the legal evaluation of the act done by the minor, educational measures may have the following legal value:
In the opinion of the author, in reforming the system of punitive and educational measures applied to minors, first of all the legislator has to seek that all the measures of administering justice provided for in the penal laws should be based not only on the "revenge" for the act done but also on help and support for the minor, the principles of sympathy and education.
GINTARAS GODA
The article is giving conception of procedural compulsion measures for the first time in Lithuanian legal literature.
The conception is shown through examination of different aspects of procedural compulsion measures. The article analyses the cathegory of procedural activities, a problem of human rights while applying measures of procedural compulsion, describes main goals of application of procedural compulsion measures, persons authorised to apply procedural compulsion measures.
The article disscusses what measures of compulsion may be applied to what participiants of the procedure. It examines a problem of relationship between procedural compulsion.
DANUTĖ JOČIENĖ
Lietuvos Respublika 1995 m. balandžio 27 d. ratifikavo Europos žmogaus teisių ir pagrindinių laisvių apsaugos konvenciją ir ši Konvencija tapo Lietuvos teisinės sistemos sudedamąja dalimi. Tai buvo ryškus žingsnis pirmyn žmogaus teisių gynybos srityje, kadangi Lietuvos Respublika įsipareigojo garantuoti tarptautinius žmogaus teisių apsaugos standartus ir suteikė teisę individams, o vėliau ir asmenų grupėms bei nevyriausybinėms organizacijoms kreiptis su peticija prieš Lietuvą į Europos žmogaus teisių komisiją. Lietuva taip pat pripažino ir Europos žmogaus teisių teismo jurisdikciją bei įsipareigojo vykdyti jo sprendimus Lietuvos atžvilgiu.
Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucinis teismas 1995 m. sausio 24 d. išvadoje dėl atskirų Europos žmogaus teisių konvencijos straipsnių atitikimo Lietuvos Respublikos konstitucijai nustatė, kad baudžiamojoje teisėje ir baudžiamajame procese Konvencija nebus tiesiogiai taikoma. Tuo tarpu civilinėje teisėje, kurioje Konvencija nėra labai svarbi, buvo pabrėžiama galimybė taikyti Konvenciją tiesiogiai. Kadangi Konvencijos "kertiniu akmeniu" pripažįstami 5 ir 6 straipsniai, numatantys laisvės atėmimo pagrindus, teisę į nepriklausomą ir nešališką teismą bei procesines garantijas, Konvencijos netiesioginio taikymo baudžiamojoje teisėje nuostata gali apsunkinti joje įtvirtintų teisių praktinį įgyvendinimą Lietuvoje. Tačiau nei pati Konvencija, nei Komisijos bei Teismo praktika nenumato griežtos pareigos valstybėms inkorporuoti Konvenciją į vidaus teisę ir padaryti ją tiesiogiai taikomą valstybės teismuose ir kitose institucijose. Valstybėms yra keliamas reikalavimas vykdyti prisiimtus tarptautinius įsipareigojimus, o kokiu būdu tai daryti palikta spręsti savo nuožiūra. Tačiau Europos žmogaus teisių teismas yra taip pat pabrėžęs, kad galimybė taikyti Konvenciją vidaus teisėje sudaro sąlygas efektyviau garantuoti jos teises. Tuo labiau kad Konvenciją manoma esant "minimaliu žmogaus teisių apsaugos standartu", kurio privalo laikytis visos demokratiškai orientuotos Europos valstybės.
Nepaisant sunkumų, džiugu, kad Lietuva pasiryžo įgyvendinti tarptautinius žmogaus teisių apsaugos standartus ir suteikti asmenims maksimalias pažeistų teisių gynybos ribas. Komisijos Sekretoriate užregistruotos pirmosios peticijos iš Lietuvos dėl Konvencijoje numatytų teisių pažeidimų leidžia manyti, kad Konvencija artimiausiu laiku taps praktiniu žmogaus teisių gynybos katalogu ir Lietuvoje.
GABRIELĖ JUODKAITĖ
Article studies the main criteria of the expert conclusion formulation process. They are logical, psychological and grammatical. The conclusions at the end of the article tell that formulation process of expert conclusion is not less important as the examination process, because its result is objective, clear and truthful conclusion about the circumstances of the case, because they are made with inner confidence.
ANZELMAS KATKUS
In the process of European integration the harmonization of valid juridical acts in Lithuania with the European standards becomes more and more important. The regulation of the constitutional status of State Control in this context obtains one more aspect. We consider the most important INTOSAI document the LIMA DECLARATION "Public Financial Control Guidance", adopted by the IX Congress of INTOSAI in 1977. Having joined this international organization of supreme audit institutions, Lithuanian State Control has to harmonize the norms of the Constitution of Lithuania with the recommendations of the mentioned Declaration. In this article, on the basis of comparison of the norms of the Constitution of Lithuania (Chapter IX "State Control") and the main principles of the mentioned Declaration as well as other international and Lithuanian juridical acts and scientific works of foreign and local specialists, the author investigates differing and coinciding propositions of those documents, actualizes the most important problems. At the end of the article the author submits the practical suggestions concerning the ammendments of the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania which will enable the State Control institution to meet the international standards.
MINDAUGAS MAKSIMAITIS
The article deals with the works of the emigration historians of jurisprudence J. Deveikytė, A. Plateris, J. Dainauskas, J. Kairys in which the problem of the old Lithuanian legal sources is considered.
It is pointed out that the development panorama of the old legal sources of Lithuania is attended to by the emigration authors, however, in their investigations the emphasis is laid on the Lithuanian Statute, the outstanding legal monument of the 16th c. Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which has been credited with special studies, furthermore, the text of the 1529 (first edition) Lithuanian Statute in the old Slawic and Lithuanian languages has been published in Chicago.
The article gives a more detailed analysis of the complex geography of the Lithuanian Statutes jurisdiction and related Russian legal sources: the Sobor Statute of 1649, the 1835 Legal Code of the Russian empire, the draft Codex of the local western provinces laws, etc. A note is made about the insufficient attention to the latter problem on the part of Lithuanian analysts.
VYTAUTAS NEKROŠIUS
Process concentration principle is ensured by the European Convention of Human Rights and Main Liberties. Realization of this principle in the procedure of civil law is becoming more and more actual due to the increasement of length of the case procedures. The article discusses not only the possibilities of concentration of the existing procedure in Lithuania, but experience of foreign countries in this area as well.
The Author of the article gives the following conclusions:
1. In order to implement the principle of concentration of the procedure, the system of certain means is to be created and legally based;
2. The main from acknowledged in appellation and cassation procedures is to be written;
3. Ius novorum is to be limited in appellation procedure;
4. Cassation procedure is to based solely on the legal ground of the case and written form of the procedure.
EGIDIJUS ŠILEIKIS
Reacting against consequences of fascism and socialism in neighbouring GDR, Federal Republic of Germany has set in its Constitution of 1949 "free democratic system". This systems has been grounded by representation democracy; referendum and right of citizens to present draft law for parliaments consideration have not been foreseen by Constitution. After downfall of socialism in Eastern Germany and unification of Germany in 1990, restraining of direct democracy in Federal Republic of Germany can hardly be justified. European integration is taking place, and "free democracy" has to be developed, granting rights for citizens to solve the main questions of state by means of referendum, e.g. membership of the country in European Union. In general, "free democracy" does not mean relic of postwar period or stage of the past. Its urgency is disclosed by such up-to-date legal problems of Federal Republic of Germany, as regulation of use of secret technologies to listen to conversations, or controlling of "Scientologie" religious organization. Therefore "free democracy" means ideal to be attained.
STASYS VANSEVIČIUS
In civil laws it was deemed that the whole complex of legal relations in which a diseased person has participated shall not end with his/her death but shall pass over to a new person. Only specific personal relations in which rights and obligations have been closely related with the person shall not pass over. The new person shall acquire the right of ownership, right to pledge/mortgage, right of demand. Rights and obligations of the deceased person shall be vested in such new person.
According to Article 1104 of Civil Laws, inheritance is the whole complex of property, rights and obligations left after the death of a person. All relations of the deceased person shall go over to another not separately but as an indivisible whole. In case the deceased person is replaced by several persons instead of one, every such person shall enter legal relations only to the extent of the value of property owned by him. However, although the new subject exercises the rights previously vested in the diseased person, and takes over the obligations of the latter, the heirs do not constitute the diseased person since everything that was peculiar to the person of the bequeather ended with his death.
Passing over of the whole complex of property relations after a persons death to the other persons was called inheritance. Property which passed over after the owners death to the other persons in English also bears the same name of inheritance. The diseased person was called the bequeather and the person who inherited the property was called the inheritor.
The right of inheritance in subjective sense, in other words the right to inherit, was conceived as the right of a certain person to inherit or to enter into the whole complex of legal relations of the diseased person.
The right of succession in objective sense was conceived as legal norms determining the passing over of the property, left after the death of the person, and constituting the institute of inheritance, to other persons.
The grounds for passing over of property from one person to the other were the testament and the law. The testament expressed direct will of the bequeather, whereas the law expressed his imaginary will.
STASYS VANSEVIČIUS
Inheritance would occur in case of the bequeathers natural or civil death. If several persons had the right to inherit in succession and all of them were killed in the same event and it was impossible to determine who of them was killed earlier than others, then the issue of inheritance was solved basing on the circumstances of the event, and in case of their absence according to the age and sex of the killed persons.
Legal heirs would get the inheritance concerned. In the absence of heirs the property would be passed over to illegitimate children, in case of their absence to the spouse, and in case of his absence to the state.
Killers of the bequeather or persons who attempted to kill him, or the ones who alleged that the bequeather has committed a crime and minors having learned about the killing of the bequeather and failing to inform the court thereabouts were recognized by court as unworthy to receive inheritance.
Inheritance would pass to children and the relatives of the low line of a diseased person, his higher and side lines. There was no representation right for the benefit of the higher line.
I was possible to accept the inheritance unconditionally or according to the inventory. Nobody had the right to make to accept the inheritance. Refusal of the inheritance could be made in the office of the first instance court.
Heirs had the right to divide the inheritance among themselves. Each heir had to return the received gifts and the amount of his debt it the mass of the inheritance. A gift given to or property registered in the name of the spouse were not to be returned to the mass of the inheritance. Heirs paid the debts of the bequeather and other taxes according to the inherited parts the property.
Property could also be inherited by the will. Is was not possible to bequeath more than half of the property when there was one legitimate child, one third in case two children and one fourth in case of three and more children. A public will was drawn by two notaries in the presence of two witnesses, or by one notary in the presence of four witnesses. A latent will was drawn and signed by a testator. A will could be only replaced by another will.